Enhanced or Diminished Expectancies in Golf Putting – Which Actually Affects Performance?

Background: Motor skill learning can be improved when learners` performance expectancies are enhanced (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). One theory that can explain the benefits of enhanced expectancies through psychological suggestion is the response expectancy theory (Kirsch, 1997). Response expectancies refer to `the anticipation of one`s automatic reactions to various situations and behaviors` (Kirsch, 1997, p. 69). For example, if a person expects to be successful, his/her behavior can change in a way that will indeed lead to success. However, it has also been shown that diminished expectancies can hinder performance (Chiviacowsky, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2012).

Aims: To examine whether performance expectancies enhance or diminish the learning of a putting task in golf. Our aim was not only to replicate a previous study (Palmer, Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2016), but also to add a control group with no circle around the target in order to assess whether a large circle around the target enhances putting performance or whether a small circle diminishes it.

Method: A laboratory experimental design with three groups: (a) a large-circle group (LCG), (b) a small-circle group (SCG), and (c) a control group (no circle around the target; CG). Based on group affiliation, the participants were asked to perform a putting task, hitting the golf ball to a target surrounded by a large circle (14 cm in diameter), to a target surrounded by a small circle (7 cm in diameter), or to a target with no surrounding circle. The participants completed a pre-test of five putting trials, followed by five blocks of 10 putting trials each. Two days later, they performed retention and transfer tests consisting of 12 putting trials each.

Results: Absolute error was significantly smaller in the LCG than in the SCG and CG for the transfer task.

Discussion: Two complementary explanations can be put forward to explain how enhanced expectancies of success can improve performance: the effect of feedback and the effect of psychological suggestion on performance.

Conclusion: Putting performance was found to be facilitated by enhanced expectancies.

References:

Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2012). Self-controlled learning: The importance of protecting perceptions of competence. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 458.

Kirsch, I. (1997). Response expectancy theory and application: A decennial review. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 6, 69-79.

Palmer, K., Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2016). Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 229-232.

Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23, 1382-1414.