The Effect of Physical Activity on Learning and Memory Processes in Young Adults With and Without ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), characterized by age-inappropriate symptoms of hyperactivity, inattentiveness, and impulsivity, is one of the most common developmental disorders among young adults. ADHD is characterized by executive function deficits that may affect the ability to learn new skills as well as new information. Structural and functional neuroimaging studies of brains of individuals with ADHD have revealed differences compared to typical peers in multiple brain systems, including circuits implicated in skill learning. Evidence-based treatments for ADHD fall into two categories: pharmacological interventions and behavior-based psychosocial treatments. Pharmacologic treatments are quite effective for reducing the inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity characteristic of ADHD. Psychosocial treatments have also been reported to improve behavior. However, treatment gains tend to be short-lived, with limited, if any, long-term beneficial effects.

One potential treatment approach for ADHD is the employment of physical exercise. Extensive evidence suggests that Physical Activity (PA) has powerful effects on brain function and structure. Although the physiological underpinnings are not clarified, a growing number of studies indicate the beneficial effects of PA on different cognitive functions, such as executive functions, attention, cognitive speed, and episodic memory.

Many researchers have examined PA’s effect on cognitive functions, with only a few directly assessing PA’s effects on learning or long-term memory. The differences between the immediate and the delayed effect of PA on cognitive function depend on learning and memory processes, which are usually separated into three main phases: the fast-learning phase, the consolidation phase, and the long-term retention phase. In cases of ineffective learning, consolidation phase gains may not occur. As deficits in the sustained engagement of attention resources and reduced inhibition of incorrect responses may lead to ineffective learning consolidation in ADHD, researchers tested the effect of strategies that may upregulate arousal levels, typically low in ADHD. Recently, PA’s role in creating effective learning and affecting different phases of learning and memory has moved into the focus of research. This was mainly studied with participants without ADHD.

The type of PA being performed may differentially affect cognitive functions. To date, most researchers investigated changes in cognition after a single session of aerobic or resistance exercise. Other forms of exercise may also affect cognition. Postural stability and coordination exercises are known to involve activation of the cerebellum, which influences motor functions and a variety of neurobehavioral systems, including attention, working memory, and verbal learning and memory.